Corrosion of steel in concrete prevention, diagnosis, repair /
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| Corporate Author: | |
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| Other Authors: | |
| Format: | Electronic eBook |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
Weinheim :
Wiley-VCH,
c2013.
|
| Edition: | 2nd, completely rev. and enlarged ed. |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Connect to this title online (unlimited simultaneous users allowed; 325 uses per year) |
Table of Contents:
- Machine generated contents note: 1. Cements and Cement Paste
- 1.1. Portland Cement and Hydration Reactions
- 1.2. Porosity and Transport Processes
- 1.2.1. Water/Cement Ratio and Curing
- 1.2.2. Porosity, Permeability and Percolation
- 1.3. Blended Cements
- 1.3.1. Pozzolanic Materials
- Natural Pozzolana
- Fly Ash
- Silica Fume
- 1.3.2. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
- 1.3.3. Ground Limestone
- 1.3.4. Other Additions
- 1.3.5. Properties of Blended Cements
- 1.4. Common Cements
- 1.5. Other Types of Cement
- High Alumina Cement (HAC)
- Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cements (CSA)
- References
- 2. Transport Processes in Concrete
- 2.1. Composition of Pore Solution and Water Content
- 2.1.1. Composition of Pore Solution
- 2.1.2. Water in Concrete
- Capillary Water
- Adsorbed Water
- Interlayer Water
- Chemically Combined Water
- 2.1.3. Water Content and Transport Processes
- 2.2. Diffusion
- 2.2.1. Stationary Diffusion
- 2.2.2. Nonstationary Diffusion
- 2.2.3. Diffusion and Binding
- 2.3. Capillary Suction
- 2.4. Permeation
- 2.4.1. Water Permeability Coefficient
- 2.4.2. Gas Permeability Coefficient
- 2.5. Migration
- 2.5.1. Ion Transport in Solution
- 2.5.2. Ion Transport in Concrete
- 2.5.3. Resistivity of Concrete
- Temperature Dependence
- Concrete Resistivity and Corrosion Rate
- Measuring Concrete Resistivity
- 2.6. Mechanisms and Significant Parameters
- Correlations
- Presence of More Than One Transport Mechanism
- References
- 3. Degradation of Concrete
- 3.1. Freeze-Thaw Attack
- 3.1.1. Mechanism
- 3.1.2. Factors Influencing Frost Resistance
- 3.1.3. Air-Entrained Concrete
- 3.2. Attack by Acids and Pure Water
- 3.2.1. Acid Attack
- 3.2.2. Biogenic Sulfuric Acid Attack
- 3.2.3. Attack by Pure Water
- 3.2.4. Ammonium Attack
- 3.3. Sulfate Attack
- 3.3.1. External Sulfate Attack
- Protection
- 3.3.2. Internal Sulfate Attack
- Prevention
- 3.4. Alkali Silica Reaction
- 3.4.1. Alkali Content in Cement and Pore Solution
- 3.4.2. Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
- Presence and Quantity of Reactive Aggregate
- Alkali Content in the Pore Liquid of Concrete
- Type and Quantity of Cement
- Environment
- Prevention
- 3.5. Attack by Seawater
- References
- 4. General Aspects
- 4.1. Initiation and Propagation of Corrosion
- 4.1.1. Initiation Phase
- 4.1.2. Propagation Phase
- 4.2. Corrosion Rate
- 4.3. Consequences
- 4.4. Behavior of Other Metals
- References
- 5. Carbonation-Induced Corrosion
- 5.1. Carbonation of Concrete
- 5.1.1. Penetration of Carbonation
- 5.1.2. Factors That Influence the Carbonation Rate
- Humidity
- CO2 Concentration
- Temperature
- Concrete Composition
- 5.2. Initiation Time
- 5.2.1. Parabolic Formula
- 5.2.2. Other Formulas
- 5.3. Corrosion Rate
- 5.3.1. Carbonated Concrete without Chlorides
- 5.3.2. Carbonated and Chloride-Contaminated Concrete
- References
- 6. Chloride-Induced Corrosion
- 6.1. Pitting Corrosion
- 6.2. Corrosion Initiation
- 6.2.1. Chloride Threshold
- Chloride Binding
- Atmospherically Exposed Structures
- Submerged Structures
- 6.2.2. Chloride Penetration
- 6.2.3. Surface Content (Cs)
- 6.2.4. Apparent Diffusion Coefficient
- 6.3. Corrosion Rate
- Exceptions
- References
- 7. Electrochemical Aspects
- 7.1. Electrochemical Mechanism of Corrosion
- Polarization Curves
- 7.2. Noncarbonated Concrete without Chlorides
- 7.2.1. Anodic Polarization Curve
- 7.2.2. Cathodic Polarization Curve
- 7.2.3. Corrosion Conditions
- 7.3. Carbonated Concrete
- 7.4. Concrete Containing Chlorides
- 7.4.1. Corrosion Initiation and Pitting Potential
- 7.4.2. Propagation
- 7.4.3. Repassivation
- 7.5. Structures under Cathodic or Anodic Polarization
- References
- 8. Macrocells
- 8.1. Structures Exposed to the Atmosphere
- Coated Reinforcement
- Protection Effect
- Presence of Different Metals
- Other Macrocell Effects
- 8.2. Buried Structures and Immersed Structures
- Differential Aeration in Buried Structures
- Structures Immersed in Seawater
- Rebars Not Entirely Embedded in Concrete
- Buried Structures Connected with Ground Systems
- 8.3. Electrochemical Aspects
- 8.4. Modeling of Macrocells
- References
- 9. Stray-Current-Induced Corrosion
- 9.1. DC Stray Current
- 9.1.1. Alkaline and Chloride-Free Concrete
- First Precondition
- Second Precondition
- 9.1.2. Passive Steel in Chloride-Contaminated Concrete
- Interruptions in the Stray Current
- 9.1.3. Corroding Steel
- 9.2. AC Stray Current
- 9.3. High-Strength Steel
- 9.4. Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
- 9.5. Inspection
- 9.6. Protection from Stray Current
- References
- 10. Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking
- 10.1. Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
- Anodic Stress Corrosion Cracking
- Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking (HI-SCC)
- 10.2. Failure under Service of High-Strength Steel
- 10.2.1. Crack Initiation
- 10.2.2. Crack Propagation
- σs and KISCC
- 10.2.3. Fast Propagation
- 10.2.4. Critical Conditions
- 10.2.5. Fracture Surface
- 10.3. Metallurgical, Mechanical and Load Conditions
- 10.3.1. Susceptibility of Steel to HI-SCC
- 10.4. Environmental Conditions
- Critical Intervals of Potential and pH
- 10.5. Hydrogen Generated during Operation
- Noncarbonated and Chloride-Free Concrete
- Carbonated Concrete
- Concrete Containing Chlorides
- Cathodically Protected Structures
- 10.6. Hydrogen Generated before Ducts Are Filled
- 10.7. Protection of Prestressing Steel
- References
- 11. Design for Durability
- 11.1. Factors Affecting Durability
- 11.1.1. Conditions of Aggressiveness
- 11.1.2. Concrete Quality
- 11.1.3. Cracking
- 11.1.4. Thickness of the Concrete Cover
- 11.1.5. Inspection and Maintenance
- 11.2. Approaches to Service-Life Modeling
- 11.2.1. Prescriptive Approaches
- 11.2.2. Performance-Based Approaches
- Limit States and Design Equation
- Variability
- 11.3. Approach of the European Standards
- 11.4. fib Model Code for Service-Life Design for Chloride-Induced Corrosion
- 11.5. Other Methods
- 11.6. Additional Protection Measures
- 11.7. Costs
- References
- 12. Concrete Technology for Corrosion Prevention
- 12.1. Constituents of Concrete
- 12.1.1. Cement
- 12.1.2. Aggregates
- 12.1.3. Mixing Water
- 12.1.4. Admixtures
- Water Reducers and Superplasticizers
- 12.2. Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete
- 12.2.1. Workability
- Measurement of Workability
- 12.2.2. Strength
- Compressive Strength and Strength Class
- Tensile Strength
- 12.2.3. Deformation
- 12.2.4. Shrinkage and Cracking
- 12.3. Requirements for Concrete and Mix Design
- 12.4. Concrete Production
- 12.4.1. Mixing, Handling, Placement and Compaction
- 12.4.2. Curing
- 12.5. Design Details
- 12.6. Concrete with Special Properties
- 12.6.1. Concrete with Mineral Additions
- 12.6.2. High-Performance Concrete (HPC)
- 12.6.3. Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC)
- References
- 13. Corrosion Inhibitors
- 13.1. Mechanism of Corrosion Inhibitors
- 13.2. Mode of Action of Corrosion Inhibitors
- 13.3. Corrosion Inhibitors to Prevent or Delay Corrosion Initiation
- 13.4. Corrosion Inhibitors to Reduce the Propagation Rate of Corrosion
- 13.5. Transport of the Inhibitor into Mortar or Concrete
- 13.6. Field Tests and Experience with Corrosion Inhibitors
- 13.7. Critical Evaluation of Corrosion Inhibitors
- Concentration Dependence
- Measurement and Control of Inhibitor Action
- 13.8. Effectiveness of Corrosion Inhibitors
- References
- 14. Surface Protection Systems
- 14.1. General Remarks
- 14.2. Organic Coatings
- 14.2.1. Properties and Testing
- 14.2.2. Performance
- 14.3. Hydrophobic Treatment
- 14.3.1. Properties and Testing
- 14.3.2. Performance
- 14.4. Treatments That Block Pores
- 14.5. Cementitious Coatings and Layers
- 14.6. Concluding Remarks on Effectiveness and Durability of Surface Protection Systems
- References
- 15. Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcement
- 15.1. Steel for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
- 15.1.1. Reinforcing Bars
- 15.1.2. Prestressing Steel
- 15.1.3. Corrosion Behavior
- 15.2. Stainless Steel Rebars
- 15.2.1. Properties of Stainless Steel Rebars
- Chemical Composition and Microstructure
- Mechanical Properties
- Weldability
- Other Properties
- 15.2.2. Corrosion Resistance
- Resistance to Pitting Corrosion
- Fields of Applicability
- 15.2.3. Coupling with Carbon Steel
- 15.2.4. Applications and Cost
- 15.2.5. High-Strength Stainless Steels
- 15.3. Galvanized Steel Rebars
- 15.3.1. Properties of Galvanized Steel Bars
- 15.3.2. Corrosion Resistance
- 15.3.3. Galvanized Steel Tendons
- 15.4. Epoxy-Coated Rebars
- 15.4.1. Properties of the Coating
- 15.4.2. Corrosion Resistance
- 15.4.3. Practical Aspects
- 15.4.4. Effectiveness
- References
- 16. Inspection and Condition Assessment
- 16.1. Visual Inspection and Cover Depth
- 16.2. Electrochemical Inspection Techniques
- 16.2.1. Half-Cell Potential Mapping
- Principle
- Procedure
- Data Collection and Representation
- Interpretation
- 16.2.2. Resistivity Measurements
- Measurements at the Concrete Surface
- Procedure
- Interpretation
- 16.2.3. Corrosion Rate
- Contents note continued: Determination of the Polarization Resistance
- Execution of the Measurements
- Corrosion Rate Measurements Onsite
- Interpretation of the Results
- 16.3. Analysis of Concrete
- 16.3.1. Carbonation Depth
- 16.3.2. Chloride Determination
- Chloride Profile Based on Cores or Powder Drilling
- Dissolution of the Powder
- Chemical Analysis
- Interpretation
- References
- 17. Monitoring
- 17.1. Introduction
- 17.2. Monitoring with Nonelectrochemical Sensors
- Sensors Based on Macrocell Measurements
- Sensors Based on Indepth Resistivity Measurements
- Macrocell Corrosion Monitoring
- Relative Humidity Sensors
- 17.3. Monitoring with Electrochemical Sensors
- Corrosion Potential
- Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR)
- Chloride Content
- pH Monitoring
- Oxygen-Transport Monitoring
- 17.4. Critical Factors
- Objective of Monitoring
- Monitoring Design
- Choice of Sensors and Probes
- 17.5. On the Way to "Smart Structures"
- 17.6. Structural Health Monitoring
- References
- 18. Principles and Methods for Repair
- 18.1. Approach to Repair
- 18.1.1. Repair Options
- 18.1.2. Basic Repair Principles
- 18.2. Overview of Repair Methods for Carbonated Structures
- 18.2.1. Methods Based on Repassivation
- Conventional Repair
- Repassivation with Alkaline Concrete or Mortar
- Electrochemical Realkalization
- Cathodic Protection
- 18.2.2. Reduction of the Moisture Content of the Concrete
- 18.2.3. Coating of the Reinforcement
- 18.3. Overview of Repair Methods for Chloride-Contaminated Structures
- 18.3.1. Methods Based on Repassivation
- Repassivation with Alkaline Mortar or Concrete
- Electrochemical Chloride Removal (ECR)
- 18.3.2. Cathodic Protection
- 18.3.3. Other Methods
- Hydrophobic Treatment
- Coating of the Reinforcement
- Migrating Inhibitors
- 18.4. Design, Requirements, Execution and Control of Repair Works
- References
- 19. Conventional Repair
- 19.1. Assessment of the Condition of the Structure
- 19.2. Removal of Concrete
- 19.2.1. Definition of Concrete to be Removed
- Carbonation-Induced Corrosion
- Chloride-Induced Corrosion
- Variability
- 19.2.2. Techniques for Concrete Removal
- 19.2.3. Surface Preparation
- 19.3. Preparation of Reinforcement
- 19.4. Application of Repair Material
- 19.4.1. Requirements
- Alkalinity and Resistance to Carbonation and Chloride Penetration
- Cover Thickness
- Rheology and Application Method
- Bond to the Substrate and Dimensional Stability
- Mechanical Properties
- 19.4.2. Repair Materials
- 19.4.3. Specifications and Tests
- 19.5. Additional Protection
- Corrosion Inhibitors
- Surface Treatment of Concrete
- Coating of Rebars
- 19.6. Strengthening
- References
- 20. Electrochemical Techniques
- 20.1. Development of the Techniques
- 20.1.1. Cathodic Protection
- 20.1.2. Cathodic Prevention
- 20.1.3. Electrochemical Chloride Removal
- 20.1.4. Electrochemical Realkalization
- 20.2. Effects of the Circulation of Current
- 20.2.1. Beneficial Effects
- Reactions on the Steel Surface
- Migration
- 20.2.2. Side Effects
- Hydrogen Embrittlement
- Alkali Aggregate Reaction
- Loss of Bond Strength
- Anodic Acidification
- 20.2.3. How Various Techniques Work
- 20.3. Cathodic Protection and Cathodic Prevention
- 20.3.1. Cathodic Protection of Steel in Chloride-Contaminated Concrete
- 20.3.2. Cathodic Prevention
- 20.3.3. Cathodic Protection in Carbonated Concrete
- 20.3.4. Throwing Power
- 20.3.5. Anode System
- 20.3.6. Practical Aspects
- Design
- Anode System
- Power System
- Electrical Connections
- Zones
- Repair Materials
- Monitoring System
- Trials
- Execution
- Operation and Maintenance
- 20.3.7. Service Life
- 20.3.8. Numerical Modeling
- 20.4. Electrochemical Chloride Extraction and Realkalization
- 20.4.1. Electrochemical Chloride Extraction
- Treatment Effectiveness
- Durability after Chloride Extraction
- Trials
- Monitoring of the Process
- Monitoring after Treatment
- Side Effects
- 20.4.2. Electrochemical Realkalization
- End-Point Determination and Treatment Effectiveness
- Influence of the Cement Type
- Durability
- Side Effects
- 20.4.3. Practical Aspects
- References.